Jopp, D., & Hertzog, C. (2007). Activities, self-referent memory beliefs , and cognitive performance: Evidence for direct and mediated relations. Psychology and aging, 22(4), 811-825.

Abstract

In this study, the authors investigated the role of activities and self-referent memory beliefs for cognitive performance in a life-span sample. A factor analysis identified 8 activity factors, including Developmental Activities, Experiential Activities, Social Activities, Physical Activities, Technology Use, Watching Television, Games, and Crafts. A second-order general activity factor was significantly related to a general factor of cognitive function as defined by ability tests. Structural regression models suggested that prediction of cognition by activity level was partially mediated by memory beliefs, controlling for age, education, health, and depressive affect. Models adding paths from general and specific activities to aspects of crystallized intelligence suggested additional unique predictive effects for some activities. In alternative models, nonsignificant effects of beliefs on activities were detected when cognition predicted both variables, consistent with the hypothesis that beliefs derive from monitoring cognition and have no influence on activity patterns.

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McGuire, C. L., Hertzog, C., & Colson, K. F. (2001).  Age differences in performance and strategy use on a free recall task.  Unpublished manuscript.

Abstract

After an oral free recall task, younger and older adults answered questions about the memory task in a semi-structured oral interview. Self-reported strategies were coded and classified into ranked categories (Optimal, Marginal, Low), with the Optimal category including normatively effective relational encoding strategies. Younger adults reported using more strategies, and these strategies were rated as more effective, on average, than those used by older adults. Use of optimal strategies use predicted recall in both age groups, but robust age differences remained after controlling for strategy use. Strategy use was not reliably correlated with metacognitive beliefs, including implicit theories about aging and memory decline, memory self-concept, perceived control over memory functioning, or performance predictions.

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Papers:

Hertzog, C. & Hultsch, D. F. (2000).  Metacognition in adulthood and old age (pp. 417-466).  In Salthouse, T. & Craik, F. I. M. (Eds.) Handbook of Aging and Cognition II. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Abstract

In this chapter we review our recent research examining relationships between implicit theories about memory and aging, personal beliefs about memory, memory task performance, and attributions about memory task performance. Individuals who believe in lower rates of decline in memory efficacy and control over the life span also tend to have higher ratings of memory self-efficacy and personal control over memory. Personal control beliefs are also related to the likelihood of using effective encoding strategies in a free recall task. Although there are age differences in personal beliefs about memory and in the likelihood of effective strategy use, the amount of age-related variance is relatively small and hence these variables do not account for much of the (substantial) age-related variance in free recall performance. Instead, beliefs and age represent relatively independent predictors of memory task performance. Given that many older adults do not use effective strategies, apparently in part because they do not necessarily believe in the possibility of controlling memory performance through strategy use, interventions designed to change beliefs about the controllability of memory might enhance the performance of some older adults.

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Hertzog, C., Lineweaver, T. T., & McGuire, C. L. (1999).  Beliefs about memory and aging.  In F. Blanchard-Fields & T. M. Hess (Eds.), Social Cognition and Aging (pp. 43-68). NY: Academic Press.

Abstract

In this chapter we review our recent research examining relationships between implicit theories about memory and aging, personal beliefs about memory, memory task performance, and attributions about memory task performance. Individuals who believe in lower rates of decline in memory efficacy and control over the life span also tend to have higher ratings of memory self-efficacy and personal control over memory. Personal control beliefs are also related to the likelihood of using effective encoding strategies in a free recall task. Although there are age differences in personal beliefs about memory and in the likelihood of effective strategy use, the amount of age-related variance is relatively small and hence these variables do not account for much of the (substantial) age-related variance in free recall performance. Instead, beliefs and age represent relatively independent predictors of memory task performance. Given that many older adults do not use effective strategies, apparently in part because they do not necessarily believe in the possibility of controlling memory performance through strategy use, interventions designed to change beliefs about the controllability of memory might enhance the performance of some older adults.

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Lineweaver, T. T., & Hertzog, C. (1998).  Adults' efficacy and control beliefs regarding memory and aging: Separating general from personal beliefs.  Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 5, 264-296.

Abstract

A cross-sectional sample of adults answered two questionnaires regarding beliefs about memory, took a free recall test, and then answered two open-ended questions obtaining causal attributions for memory task performance. Adults of all ages most frequently attributed memory performance to internal skills (typically, strategies for learning and remembering), although older adults were more likely than younger adults to make internal-ability attributions. Self-reported strategies were classified into three ranked categories: (a) optimal (some form of relational processing), (b) marginal (e.g., rote rehearsal), or (c) none (e.g., nonspecific effort). Use of optimal strategies was positively related to recall performance and perceived control over memory for persons of all ages. Age differences in use of strategies were small and did not account for age differences in memory performance.

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Cavanaugh, J. C., Feldman, J., & Hertzog, C. (1998).  Memory beliefs as social cognition: A reconceptualization of what memory questionnaires assess.  Review of General Psychology, 2, 48-65.

Abstract

Few attempts have been made to integrate research on memory beliefs across adulthood with related constructs in social cognition. This article addresses the issue of how respondents formulate answers to memory-beliefs questions from a social-cognitive perspective. We propose that reported memory beliefs represent the outcomes of a process that involves both the retrieval of previously stored information about self and about memory and on-line constructive processes. This article offers a set of assumptions that clarifies existing data on memory beliefs and generates new hypotheses regarding the interactions between beliefs about the aging process, memory, and constructs such as memory self-efficacy and how such variables combine with the on-line constructive processes to produce individual differences in responses.

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McDonald-Miszczak, L., Hertzog, C., & Hultsch, D. F. (1995). Stability and accuracy of metamemory in adulthood and aging.  Psychology and Aging, 10, 553-564.

Abstract

The stability and accuracy of memory perceptions in 2 longitudinal samples was examined. Sample 1 consisted of 231 adults (22-78 years) tested twice of 2 years. Sample 2 consisted of 234 adults (55-86 years) tested 3 times over 6 years. Measures of perceived and actual memory change were obtained. A primary focus was whether perceptions of memory change stem from application of an implicit theory about aging and memory or from accurate monitoring of actual changes in performance. Individual differences in metamemory were highly stable over time. Results suggested at least some accurate monitoring of memory in Sample 2, in which actual change as greatest. However, the overall pattern of results is largely consistent with predictions derived from an implicit theory hypothesis.

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Grover, D. R., & Hertzog, C. (1991).  Relationships between intellectual control beliefs and psychometric intelligence in adulthood.  Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, P109-P115.

Abstract

This longitudinal study examined perceived control of intelligence and its relationship with intellectual performance. A large sample (ages 43-84) was administered the short form of Lachman's PIC and psychometric tests of eight intellectual abilities in both 1985 and 1987. There were significant cross-sectional age differences in the three scales: Internal (INT), Powerful Others (POW), and Chance (CHA). The three scales correlated with all intellectual abilities, with relationships being largest for POW. The PIC scales showed lower test-retest correlations than the intelligence tests. Individual differences in change in POW and CHA were also correlated with prior levels of psychometric intelligence, and path analyses suggested a small but significant prediction of change in POW by prior levels of intelligence.