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Hertzog, C., Touron, D. R., & Hines, J. C. (2007). Does a time-monitoring deficit influence older adults' delayed retrieval shift during skill acguisition? Psychology and Aging 22(3), 607-624.

Abstract

The authors evaluated age-related time-monitoring deficits and their contribution to older adults' reluctance to shift to memory retrieval in the noun-pair lookup (NP) task. Older adults (M = 67 years) showed slower rates of response time (RT) improvements than younger adults (M = 19 years), because of a delayed strategy shift. Older adults estimated scanning latencies as being faster than they actually were and showed poor resolution in discriminating short from long RTs early in practice. The difference in estimated RT for retrieval and scanning strategies predicted retrieval use, independent of actual RT differences. Separate scanning and recognition memory tasks revealed larger time-monitoring differences for older adults than in the NP task. Apparently, the context of heterogeneous RTs as a result of strategy use in the NP task improved older adults' accuracy of RT estimates. RT feedback had complex effects on time-monitoring accuracy, although it generally improved absolute and relative accuracy of RT estimates. Feedback caused older adults to shift more rapidly to the retrieval strategy in the NP task. Results suggest that deficient time monitoring plays a role in older adults' delayed retrieval shift, although other factors (e.g., confidence in the retrieval strategy) also play a role.

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Touron, D. & Hertzog, C. (2004).  Distinguishing age differences in knowledge, strategy use, and confidence during strategic skill acquisition. Psychology and Aging, 19, 452-466.

Abstract

We examined how age differences in strategy selection are related to associative learning deficits and metacognitive variables, including memory ability confidence. In Experiment 1, increases in memory reliance for performance of the noun-pair lookup task were compared to increases in noun-pair memory ability. In Experiment 2, memory reliance was assessed for noun-pairs memorized prior to the task. In each experiment, older adults manifested a substantial delay in transition to a retrieval-based strategy despite comparable noun-pair knowledge. In Experiment 3, young and older adults reported comparable confidence ratings for the accuracy of each memory probe response. However, older adults reported lower confidence in their general ability to use the memory retrieval strategy, which correlated with avoidance of the retrieval strategy. Age deficits in associative learning mechanisms are not sufficient to account for age differences in strategy shift or in rates of noun-pair performance improvements.

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Touron, D. & Hertzog, C. (2004).  Strategy Shift Affordance and Strategy Choice in Young and Older Adults. Memory & Cognition, 32, 298-312.

Abstract

When skill acquisition involves a shift in strategy (such as from rule-based to retrieval-based processing), older adults typically shift later in practice than young adults. We observed the shift from scanning-based to memory-based processing in a noun-pair learning task. Young and older adults were trained in conditions where the relationship between memory load and scanning load was manipulated by making the strategy shift more or less beneficial.  Older adults in a condition with high shift affordance shifted to memory retrieval more fully and more rapidly than did older adults in a conditions with lower shift affordance. Reluctance to rely on memory retrieval was related to metacognitive reports of memory confidence. The present study indicates that age differences in skill acquisition reflect qualitative differences in strategy choice in addition to quantitative differences in component task ability.

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Rogers, W. A., Hertzog, C., & Fisk, A. D. (2000).  Age-related differences in associative learning: An individual differences analysis of ability and strategy influences.  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 359-394.

Abstract

The relationships among abilities, strategies, and performance on an associative learning task were investigated for young (aged 17 to 34) and older adults (aged 60 to 82) participants. Participants received extensive practice on a noun-pair task in which they could use a visual-scanning strategy or a memory-retrieval strategy. Older adults were more likely to use the scanning strategy. Age differences were reduced when comparisons were made only for participants using a retrieval strategy. Associative memory was predictive of learning on the task, and semantic-memory access speed was predictive of practiced performance. Practiced performance on a memory-search task that also required associative learning was predictive of practiced noun-pair performance. Models of ability-performance relationships for skill acquisition are discussed.

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Hertzog., C., Cooper, B. P., & Fisk, A. D. (1996).  Aging and individual differences in the development of skilled memory search performance.  Psychology and Aging, 11, 497-520.

Abstract

We examined individual differences in measures of multiple intellectual abilities and performance on a pure memory search task over 5 experimental sessions. Old (n = 104) and young (n = 97) participants showed expected patterns of substantial improvement in meory search intercepts and slopes in consistenly mapped (CM) conditions, relative to varied mapping (VM) conditions. Initial (unskilled) CM and VM memory search was highly correlated with a Semantic Memory Access Speed factor and moderatley correlated with General Intelligence. Structural equation models showed that measures of Semantic Memory Access remained a strong predictor of skilled CM search performance in both age groups despite individual differences in CM memory search performance changes. These results indicate qualitative differences in the nature of automatically between memory search and visual search and suggest age invariance in the mechanisms determinging automaticity in memory search.

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Rogers, W. A., Fisk, A. D., & Hertzog. C. (1994).  Do ability-performance relationships differentiate age and practice effects in visual search?  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 710-738.

Abstract

Relationships between abilities and performance in visual search were investigated for young and old adults. Ss received extensive practice on category search task. A consistent version allowed development of an automatic attention response; a varied version allowed general performance improvements. Transfer conditions assessed learning. General ability, induction, semantic knowledge, working memory, perceptual speed, semantic memory access, and psychomotor speed were accessed. LISREL models revealed that general ability and semantic memory access predicted initial performance for both ages. Improvements on both the consistent and varied tasks were predicted by perceptual speed. Ability-performance relationships indexed performance changes but were not predictive of learning (i.e., automatic process vs. general efficiency). Qualitative differences in the ability-transfer models suggest age differences in learning.