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Utilization of Monitoring
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Papers:
Price, J., Hertzog,
C., & Dunlosky, J. (2009). Self-regulated learning in younger
and older adults: Does age affect cognitive control? Unpublished manuscript
Abstract
Two experiments examined whether younger and older adults’ self-paced study (item selection
and study time allocation) behaviors conformed to the region of proximal learning (RPL) model
when studying normatively easy, medium, and difficult Spanish-English vocabulary pairs.
Experiment 2 manipulated the value of recalling different pairs and provided learning goals for
words recalled and points earned. Younger and older adults in both experiments selected items
for study in an easy-to-difficult order, indicating the RPL model applies to older adults’ selfregulated
study. Individuals allocated more time to difficult items, but prioritized easier items
when given less time or point values favoring difficult items. Older adults studied more items for
longer but realized lower recall than younger adults. Older adults’ lower memory self-efficacy
and perceived control correlated with their greater item restudy and avoidance of difficult items
with high point values. Results are discussed in terms of RPL and Agenda Based Regulation
models.
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Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2009).
Metacognitive training at home: does it improve older adults'
learning?
Gerontology.
Abstract
Background: Previous research has described
the success of an intervention aimed at improving older adults’
ability to regulate their learning. This metacognitive approach
involves teaching older adults to allocate their study time more
efficiently by testing themselves and restudying items that are
less well-learned. Objective: Although this type of memory
intervention has shown promise, training older adults to test
themselves in the laboratory can be very time intensive. Thus,
the purpose of the present study is to transport the
self-testing training method from the laboratory to home use.
Methods: A standard intervention design was used that included a
pre-training session, multiple training sessions, and a
post-training session. Participants were randomly assigned to
either the training group (n = 29) or the waiting-list control
group (n = 27). Moreover, we screened participants on whether
they used the self-testing strategy during their pre-training
test session. Results: Compared to the performance of the
control group, the training group displayed significant gains,
which demonstrates that older adults can benefit from training
themselves to use these skills at home. Moreover, the results of
the present study indicate that this metacognitive approach can
effectively improve older adults’ learning, even for those who
spontaneously self-test prior to training. Conclusions: Training
metacognitive skills, such as self-testing and efficient study
allocation, can improve the ability to learn new information for
healthy older adults. More importantly, older adult clients can
be supplied with an at-home training manual, which will ease the
burden on practitioners.
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Hines, J.C., Touron, D.R., & Hertzog,
C. (2009). Metacognitive influences on study time allocation in
an associative recognition task: an analysis of adult age
differences. Psychology and Aging
Abstract
The
current study evaluated a metacognitive account of study time
allocation, which argues that metacognitive monitoring of
recognition test accuracy and latency influences subsequent
strategic control and regulation. We examined judgments of
learning (JOLs), recognition test confidence judgments (CJs),
and subjective response time (RT) judgments by younger and older
adults in an associative recognition task involving 2 study-test
phases, with self-paced study in phase 2. Multi-level regression
analyses assessed the degree to which age and metacognitive
variables predicted phase 2 study time independent of actual
test accuracy and RT. Outcomes supported the metacognitive
account – JOLs and CJs predicted study time independent of
recognition accuracy. For older adults with errant RT judgments,
subjective retrieval fluency influenced response confidence as
well as (mediated through confidence) subsequent study time
allocation. Older adults studied items longer which had been
assigned lower CJs, suggesting no age deficit in using memory
monitoring to control learning.
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Dunlosky, J., Cavallini, E., Roth, H., McGuire, C. L., Vecchi,
T., & Hertzog C. (2007). Do self-monitoring interventions improve
older adult learning? Journals of Gerontology Series
B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62, 70-76.
Abstract
We describe a self-monitoring approach for improving older adult learning that
older adults can use in conjunction with more traditional
mnemonic-based interventions. According to the self-monitoring
approach, older adults can improve the effectiveness of learning by
accurately monitoring their progress toward a learning goal and by
using the output from such monitoring to allocate study time and to
inform strategy selection. We review current evidence, which
includes outcomes from two previously unpublished interventions,
relevant to the efficacy of this approach. Both interventions
demonstrated performance gains in memory performance after
self-monitoring training, although these training gains did not
exceed gains obtained through standard mnemonic training. Our
discussion highlights both successes and failures of self-monitoring
to enhance learning as well as challenges for future research.
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Dunlosky, J., Hertzog, C., Kennedy, M., & Thiede,
K. (2005). The Self-Monitoring Approach for Effective Learning.
Cognitive Technology.
Abstract
People often seek techniques that can enhance their learning and
retention of important materials. Whereas popular techniques focus
on how to increase the effectiveness of memorization by using mnemonics,
the self-monitoring approach attempts to enhance people’s learning
vis-ŕ-vis the use of accurate monitoring to regulate study. As such,
this approach may complement existing mnemonic techniques by helping
students to identify which materials have not been well learned and
hence require further study. The promise of this self-monitoring approach
is illustrated by evidence from three independent lines of research, which
demonstrate that the use of accurate monitoring can improve learning for
individuals with varying abilities and across different kinds of material.
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Dunlosky, J. T., Kubat-Silman, A. K. & Hertzog, C.
(2003). Training monitoring skills
improves older adults' self-paced associative learning. Psychology
and Aging, 18, 340-345.
Abstract
We investigated a memory-enhancement program that involved teaching older adults to
regulate study through self testing. A regulation group was taught standard strategies along with
self-testing techniques for identifying less-well learned items that could benefit from extra study. This
group was compared to a strategy-control group that were taught only strategies and to a
waiting-list control group. Greater training gains were shown for the regulation group
(effect size, d = .72) than for the strategy-control (d = .28) and waiting-list control
(d = .03) groups, indicating that training a
monitoring skill--self testing--can improve older adults’
learning.
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Dunlosky, J. T., & Hertzog, C. (1998). Training programs to improve learning in
later adulthood: Helping older adults educate themselves. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, &
A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 249-275).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Abstract
We review findings in the literature regarding aging and metacognitive
monitoring, strategy use, and learning. The central thesis is that aging does not impair the
ability to monitor ongoing learning, even though it has an adverse impact on learning itself.
Given that older adults are able to monitor their learning, the argument developed in this chapter
is that they can potentially benefit from the strategic use of monitoring to control or regulate
their learning. This involves the use of self-testing as a metacognitively oriented strategy --
actually testing one's learning and then adjusting learning strategies based on the self-testing.
Existing training programs for older adults have focused almost exclusively on strategy training,
with or without cognitive restructuring of dysfunctional beliefs about the nature of aging and its
effects on memory. We argue that existing training programs should be expanded to included metacognitive
training, so that older adults are encouraged to monitor the effectiveness of strategies by self-testing,
and to then adapt their strategic behavior (for example, by allocating more time and effort to study the
information they have not yet mastered).
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Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (1997). Older and younger adults use a functionally
identical algorithm to select items for restudy during multi-trial learning. Journal
of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 52, 178-186.
Abstract
We investigated whether aging affects several components of how people select
items for study during multitrial learning. Younger and older adults studied paired-associate
items and then made delayed judgments of learning (JOLs). Immediately after making a JOL for an
item, some participants decided whether to restudy the item on subsequent trials; for other participants,
the computer selected for restudy the items that had been judged as least-well learned. Next, paired-associate
recall occurred, which was followed by restudy-test trials. As expected, age differences occurred in recall
on the first trial, and this difference was propagated across trials. In contrast to the hypothesis that older
adults would be more conservative in selecting items, both age groups selected to restudy (a) the items that
they had rated as least-well learned and (b) the majority of items that would not be recalled on the first
trial. Comparisons between participants who self-selected items vs the groups in which the computer controlled
selection also converged on the conclusion of age equivalence in processes underlying item selection.
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