Memory Control Theory & Memory Beliefs Article List

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Papers:

Hertzog, C., & Jopp, D. S. (in press). Resilience in the face of cognitive aging: Experience, adaptation, and compensation. In P. S. Fry & C. Keyes (Eds.), New frontiers in resilient aging: Life-strengths and wellness in late life.

Abstract

We articulate a life-span developmental perspective on gains and losses in cognitive functioning during adulthood. This perspective argues that older adults function effectively in ways that preserve goal attainment in cognitively demanding situations despite age-related cognitive decline. Moreover, because individuals grow and age in self-selected contexts, they can successfully use expertise and knowledge, practiced routines of behavior, and reliance on sources of support in their environment to maximize their functional capacity. Metacognitive self-regulation and an active life style can be important means for older adults to preserve cognitive capacity and to effectively compensate for declines in cognitive mechanisms as they occur.

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Lineweaver, T. T., Berger, A.K., & Hertzog, C. (2009). Expectations about memory change are impacted by aging stereotypes. Psychology and Aging, 24, 169-176..

Abstract

This study examined whether expectations about memory change with age vary for different personality types. Four adjectives from each of M. L. Hummert, T. A. Garstka, J. L. Shaner, and S. Strahm’s (1994) age-stereotype trait sets were selected to create 11 adjective clusters varying in both valence (positive vs. negative) and relevance to memory functioning. There were 373 participants in 3 age groups who rated the memory abilities of target adults, defined by the adjective clusters, across the adult life span. Consistent with past studies, participants believed in age-related memory decline. However, participants rated target adults with positive personality traits as having better memory ability and less age-related memory decline than target adults with negative personality traits. This effect was larger when the traits were relevant to memory than when they were not. Finally, older participants were more strongly influenced by both the valence and the relevance of the personality descriptions than younger participants.

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Hertzog, C., McGuire C. L., Horhota M., & Jopp D. (2009). Does believing in “use it or lose it” relate to self-rated memory control, strategy use and recall? International Journal of Aging and Human Development.

Abstract

After an oral free recall task, participants were interviewed about their memory. Despite reporting similar levels of perceived personal control over memory, older and young adults differed in the means in which they believed memory could be controlled. Older adults cited health and wellness practices and exercising memory, consistent with a ‘use it or lose it’ belief system, more often than young adults who were more likely to mention metacognition and flexible strategy use as means of memory control. Young adults reported using more effective relational strategy use during study for a free recall test. Use of relational strategies predicted recall in both age groups, but did not materially affect age differences in performance. Metacognitive beliefs, including implicit theories about aging and memory decline, memory selfconcept, and perceived control over memory functioning did not systematically correlate with strategy use or recall.

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Jopp, D., & Hertzog, C. (2007). Activities, self-referent memory beliefs , and cognitive performance: Evidence for direct and mediated relations. Psychology and aging, 22(4), 811-825.

Abstract

In this study, the authors investigated the role of activities and self-referent memory beliefs for cognitive performance in a life-span sample. A factor analysis identified 8 activity factors, including Developmental Activities, Experiential Activities, Social Activities, Physical Activities, Technology Use, Watching Television, Games, and Crafts. A second-order general activity factor was significantly related to a general factor of cognitive function as defined by ability tests. Structural regression models suggested that prediction of cognition by activity level was partially mediated by memory beliefs, controlling for age, education, health, and depressive affect. Models adding paths from general and specific activities to aspects of crystallized intelligence suggested additional unique predictive effects for some activities. In alternative models, nonsignificant effects of beliefs on activities were detected when cognition predicted both variables, consistent with the hypothesis that beliefs derive from monitoring cognition and have no influence on activity patterns.

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Hertzog, C. & Hultsch, D. F. (2000). Metacognition in adulthood and old age (pp. 417-466). In Salthouse, T. & Craik, F. I. M. (Eds.) Handbook of Aging and Cognition II. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Abstract

In this chapter we review our recent research examining relationships between implicit theories about memory and aging, personal beliefs about memory, memory task performance, and attributions about memory task performance. Individuals who believe in lower rates of decline in memory efficacy and control over the life span also tend to have higher ratings of memory self-efficacy and personal control over memory. Personal control beliefs are also related to the likelihood of using effective encoding strategies in a free recall task. Although there are age differences in personal beliefs about memory and in the likelihood of effective strategy use, the amount of age-related variance is relatively small and hence these variables do not account for much of the (substantial) age-related variance in free recall performance. Instead, beliefs and age represent relatively independent predictors of memory task performance. Given that many older adults do not use effective strategies, apparently in part because they do not necessarily believe in the possibility of controlling memory performance through strategy use, interventions designed to change beliefs about the controllability of memory might enhance the performance of some older adults.

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Hertzog, C., Lineweaver, T. T., & McGuire, C. L. (1999). Beliefs about memory and aging. In F. Blanchard-Fields & T. M. Hess (Eds.), Social Cognition and Aging (pp. 43-68). NY: Academic Press.

Abstract

In this chapter we review our recent research examining relationships between implicit theories about memory and aging, personal beliefs about memory, memory task performance, and attributions about memory task performance. Individuals who believe in lower rates of decline in memory efficacy and control over the life span also tend to have higher ratings of memory self-efficacy and personal control over memory. Personal control beliefs are also related to the likelihood of using effective encoding strategies in a free recall task. Although there are age differences in personal beliefs about memory and in the likelihood of effective strategy use, the amount of age-related variance is relatively small and hence these variables do not account for much of the (substantial) age-related variance in free recall performance. Instead, beliefs and age represent relatively independent predictors of memory task performance. Given that many older adults do not use effective strategies, apparently in part because they do not necessarily believe in the possibility of controlling memory performance through strategy use, interventions designed to change beliefs about the controllability of memory might enhance the performance of some older adults.

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Lineweaver, T. T., & Hertzog, C. (1998). Adults' efficacy and control beliefs regarding memory and aging: Separating general from personal beliefs. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 5, 264-296.

Abstract

A cross-sectional sample of adults answered two questionnaires regarding beliefs about memory, took a free recall test, and then answered two open-ended questions obtaining causal attributions for memory task performance. Adults of all ages most frequently attributed memory performance to internal skills (typically, strategies for learning and remembering), although older adults were more likely than younger adults to make internal-ability attributions. Self-reported strategies were classified into three ranked categories: (a) optimal (some form of relational processing), (b) marginal (e.g., rote rehearsal), or (c) none (e.g., nonspecific effort). Use of optimal strategies was positively related to recall performance and perceived control over memory for persons of all ages. Age differences in use of strategies were small and did not account for age differences in memory performance.

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Cavanaugh, J. C., Feldman, J., & Hertzog, C. (1998). Memory beliefs as social cognition: A reconceptualization of what memory questionnaires assess. Review of General Psychology, 2, 48-65.

Abstract

Few attempts have been made to integrate research on memory beliefs across adulthood with related constructs in social cognition. This article addresses the issue of how respondents formulate answers to memory-beliefs questions from a social-cognitive perspective. We propose that reported memory beliefs represent the outcomes of a process that involves both the retrieval of previously stored information about self and about memory and on-line constructive processes. This article offers a set of assumptions that clarifies existing data on memory beliefs and generates new hypotheses regarding the interactions between beliefs about the aging process, memory, and constructs such as memory self-efficacy and how such variables combine with the on-line constructive processes to produce individual differences in responses.

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McDonald-Miszczak, L., Hertzog, C., & Hultsch, D. F. (1995). Stability and accuracy of metamemory in adulthood and aging. Psychology and Aging, 10, 553-564.

Abstract

The stability and accuracy of memory perceptions in 2 longitudinal samples was examined. Sample 1 consisted of 231 adults (22-78 years) tested twice of 2 years. Sample 2 consisted of 234 adults (55-86 years) tested 3 times over 6 years. Measures of perceived and actual memory change were obtained. A primary focus was whether perceptions of memory change stem from application of an implicit theory about aging and memory or from accurate monitoring of actual changes in performance. Individual differences in metamemory were highly stable over time. Results suggested at least some accurate monitoring of memory in Sample 2, in which actual change as greatest. However, the overall pattern of results is largely consistent with predictions derived from an implicit theory hypothesis.

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Grover, D. R., & Hertzog, C. (1991). Relationships between intellectual control beliefs and psychometric intelligence in adulthood. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, P109-P115.

Abstract

This longitudinal study examined perceived control of intelligence and its relationship with intellectual performance. A large sample (ages 43-84) was administered the short form of Lachman's PIC and psychometric tests of eight intellectual abilities in both 1985 and 1987. There were significant cross-sectional age differences in the three scales: Internal (INT), Powerful Others (POW), and Chance (CHA). The three scales correlated with all intellectual abilities, with relationships being largest for POW. The PIC scales showed lower test-retest correlations than the intelligence tests. Individual differences in change in POW and CHA were also correlated with prior levels of psychometric intelligence, and path analyses suggested a small but significant prediction of change in POW by prior levels of intelligence.

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